Pronouns

Pronouns
in linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (Lat: pronomen) is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun (or noun phrase) with or without a determiner, such as you and they in English. The replaced phrase is called the antecedent of the pronoun.
For example, consider the sentence "Lisa gave the coat to Phil." All three nouns in the sentence can be replaced by pronouns: "She gave it to him." If the coat, Lisa, and Phil have been previously mentioned, the listener can deduce what the pronouns she, it and him refer to and therefore understand the meaning of the sentence. However, if the sentence "She gave it to him" is the first presentation of the idea, none of the pronouns have antecedents and each pronoun is therefore ambiguous. Pronouns without antecedents are also called unprecursed pronouns.

Types of pronouns
Common types of pronouns found in the world's languages are as follows.
• Personal pronouns stand in place of the names of people or things:
o Subjective pronouns are used when the person or thing is the subject of the sentence or clause. English example: I like to eat chips, but she does not.
 Second person formal and informal pronouns (T-V distinction). For example, vous and tu in French. There is no distinction in modern English, though Elizabethan English marked the distinction with "thou" (singular informal) and "you" (plural or singular formal).
 Inclusive and exclusive "we" pronouns indicate whether the audience is included. There is no distinction in English.
 Intensive pronouns re-emphasize a noun or pronoun that has already been mentioned. English uses the same forms as for the reflexive pronouns; for example: I did it myself (contrast reflexive use I did it to myself).
o Objective pronouns are used when the person or thing is the object of the sentence or clause. English example: John likes me but not her.
 Direct and indirect object pronouns. English uses the same forms for both; for example: Mary loves him (direct object); Mary sent him a letter (indirect object).
 Reflexive pronouns are used when a person or thing acts on itself. English example: John cut himself.
 Reciprocal pronouns refer to a reciprocal relationship. English example: They do not like each other.
o Prepositional pronouns come after a preposition. No distinct forms exist in English; for example: An lie and Maria looked at him.
o Disjunctive pronouns are used in isolation, or in certain other special grammatical contexts. No distinct forms exist in English; for example: Who does this belong to? Me.
o Dummy pronouns are used when grammatical rules require a noun (or pronoun), but none is semantically required. English example: It is raining.
o Weak pronouns.
• Possessive pronouns are used to indicate possession or ownership.
o In strict sense, the possessive pronouns are only those that act syntactically as nouns. English example: Those clothes are mine.
o Often, though, the term "possessive pronoun" is also applied to the so-called possessive adjectives (or possessive determiners). For example, in English: I lost my wallet. They are not strictly speaking pronouns because they do not substitute for a noun or noun phrase, and as such, some grammarians classify these terms in a separate lexical category called determiners (they have a syntactic role close to that of adjectives, always qualifying a noun).
• Demonstrative pronouns distinguish the particular objects or people that are referred to from other possible candidates. English example: I'll take these.
• Indefinite pronouns refer to general categories of people or things. English example: Anyone can do that.
o Distributive pronouns are used to refer to members of a group separately, rather than collectively. English example: To each his own.
o Negative pronouns indicate the non-existence of people or things. English example: Nobody thinks that.
• Relative pronouns refer back to people or things previously mentioned. English example: People who smoke should quit now.
o Indefinite relative pronouns have some of the properties of both relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns. They have a sense of "referring back", but the person or thing to which they refer has not previously been explicitly named. English example: I know what I like.
• Interrogative pronouns ask which person or thing is meant. English example: Who did that?
o In many languages (e.g., Czech, English, French, Interlingua, Russian) the sets of relative and interrogative pronouns are nearly identical. Compare English: Who is that? (interrogative) to I know who that is. (relative).
Pronouns and determiners
Pronouns and determiners are closely related, and some linguists think pronouns are actually determiners without a noun phrase.[1] The following chart shows their relationships in English.
Pronoun Determiner
Personal (1st/2nd) we we Scotsmen
Possessive ours our homeland
Demonstrative this this gentleman
Indefinite some some frogs
Interrogative who which option

Definition
Generally (but not always) pronouns stand for (pro + noun) or refer to a noun, an individual or individuals or thing or things (the pronoun's antecedent) whose identity is made clear earlier in the text. For instance, we are bewildered by writers who claim something like
• They say that eating beef is bad for you.
They is a pronoun referring to someone, but who are they? Cows? whom do they represent? Sloppy use of pronouns is unfair.
Not all pronouns will refer to an antecedent, however.
• Everyone here earns over a thousand dollars a day.
The word "everyone" has no antecedent.
The problem of agreement between a pronoun and its antecedent and between a pronoun and its verb is treated in another section on Pronoun-Antecedent Consistency. The quizzes on pronoun usage are also listed at the end of that section.
This section will list and briefly describe the several kinds of pronouns.

KINDS OF PRONOUNS: Personal || Demonstrative || Indefinite || Relative ||
Reflexive || Intensive || Interrogative || Reciprocal
Personal Pronouns
Unlike English nouns, which usually do not change form except for the addition of an -s ending to create the plural or the apostrophe + s to create the possessive, personal pronouns (which stand for persons or things) change form according to their various uses within a sentence. Thus I is used as the subject of a sentence (I am happy.), me is used as an object in various ways (He hit me. He gave me a book. Do this for me.), and my is used as the possessive form (That's my car.) The same is true of the other personal pronouns: the singular you and he/she/it and the plural we, you, and they. These forms are called cases. An easily printable chart is available that shows the various Cases of the Personal Pronouns.
Personal pronouns can also be characterized or distinguished by person. First person refers to the speaker(s) or writer(s) ("I" for singular, "we" for plural). Second person refers to the person or people being spoken or written to ("you" for both singular and plural). Third person refers to the person or people being spoken or written about ("he," "she," and "it" for singular, "they" for plural). The person of a pronoun is also demonstrated in the chart Cases of the Personal Pronouns. As you will see there, each person can change form, reflecting its use within a sentence. Thus, "I" becomes "me" when used as an object ("She left me") and "my" when used in its possessive role (That's my car"); "they" becomes "them" in object form ("I like them") and "their" in possessive ("That's just their way").
When a personal pronoun is connected by a conjunction to another noun or pronoun, its case does not change. We would write "I am taking a course in Asian history"; if Talitha is also taking that course, we would write "Talitha and I are taking a course in Asian history." (Notice that Talitha gets listed before "I" does. This is one of the few ways in which English is a "polite" language.) The same is true when the object form is called for: "Professor Vendetti gave all her books to me"; if Talitha also received some books, we'd write "Professor Vendetti gave all her books to Talitha and me." For more on this, see cases of pronouns.
When a pronoun and a noun are combined (which will happen with the plural first- and second-person pronouns), choose the case of the pronoun that would be appropriate if the noun were not there.
• We students are demanding that the administration give us two hours for lunch.
• The administration has managed to put us students in a bad situation.
With the second person, we don't really have a problem because the subject form is the same as the object form, "you":
• "You students are demanding too much."
• "We expect you students to behave like adults."
Among the possessive pronoun forms, there is also what is called the nominative possessive: mine, yours, ours, theirs.
• Look at those cars. Theirs is really ugly; ours is beautiful.
• This new car is mine.
• Mine is newer than yours

.
Demonstrative Pronouns
The family of demonstratives (this/that/these/those/such) can behave either as pronouns or as determiners.
As pronouns, they identify or point to nouns.
• That is incredible! (referring to something you just saw)
• I will never forget this. (referring to a recent experience)
• Such is my belief. (referring to an explanation just made)
As determiners, the demonstratives adjectivally modify a noun that follows. A sense of relative distance (in time and space) can be conveyed through the choice of these pronouns/determiners:
• These [pancakes sitting here now on my plate] are delicious.
• Those [pancakes that I had yesterday morning] were even better.
• This [book in my hand] is well written;
• that [book that I'm pointing to, over there, on the table] is trash.
A sense of emotional distance or even disdain can be conveyed with the demonstrative pronouns:
• You're going to wear these?
• This is the best you can do?
Pronouns used in this way would receive special stress in a spoken sentence.
When used as subjects, the demonstratives, in either singular or plural form, can be used to refer to objects as well as persons.
• This is my father.
• That is my book.
In other roles, however, the reference of demonstratives is non-personal. In other words, when referring to students, say, we could write "Those were loitering near the entrance during the fire drill" (as long as it is perfectly clear in context what "those" refers to). But we would not write "The principal suspended those for two days"; instead, we would have to use "those" as a determiner and write "The principal suspended those students for two days."
Relative Pronouns
The relative pronouns (who/whoever/which/that) relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns (The student who studies hardest usually does the best.). The word who connects or relates the subject, student, to the verb within the dependent clause (studies). Choosing correctly between which and that and between who and whom leads to what are probably the most Frequently Asked Questions about English grammar. For help with which/that, refer to the Notorious Confusables article on those words (including the hyperlink to Michael Quinion's article on this usage and the links to relevant quizzes). Generally, we use "which" to introduce clauses that are parenthetical in nature (i.e., that can be removed from the sentence without changing the essential meaning of the sentence). For that reason, a "which clause" is often set off with a comma or a pair of commas. "That clauses," on the other hand, are usually deemed indispensable for the meaning of a sentence and are not set off with commas. The pronoun which refers to things; who (and its forms) refers to people; that usually refers to things, but it can also refer to people in a general kind of way. For help with who/whom refer to the section on Consistency. We also recommend that you take the quizzes on the use of who and whom at the end of that section.
The expanded form of the relative pronouns — whoever, whomever, whatever — are known as indefinite relative pronouns. A couple of sample sentences should suffice to demonstrate why they are called "indefinite":
• The coach will select whomever he pleases.
• He seemed to say whatever came to mind.
• Whoever crosses this line first will win the race.
What is often an indefinite relative pronoun:
• She will tell you what you need to know.
Indefinite Pronouns
The indefinite pronouns (everybody/anybody/somebody/all/each/every/some/none/one) do not substitute for specific nouns but function themselves as nouns (Everyone is wondering if any is left.)
One of the chief difficulties we have with the indefinite pronouns lies in the fact that "everybody" feels as though it refers to more than one person, but it takes a singular verb. (Everybody is accounted for.) If you think of this word as meaning "every single body," the confusion usually disappears. The indefinite pronoun none can be either singular or plural, depending on its context. None is nearly always plural (meaning "not any") except when something else in the sentence makes us regard it as a singular (meaning "not one"), as in "None of the food is fresh." Some can be singular or plural depending on whether it refers to something countable or noncountable. Refer to the section on Pronoun Consistency for help on determining the number of the indefinite pronouns (and the number [singular/plural] of the verbs that accompany them). There is a separate section on the uses of the pronoun one.
There are other indefinite pronouns, words that double as Determiners:
enough, few, fewer, less, little, many, much, several, more, most, all, both, every, each, any, either, neither, none, some
• Few will be chosen; fewer will finish.
• Little is expected.
See the section on Pronoun Consistency for help in determining the number (singular/plural) characteristics of these pronouns.
Intensive Pronouns
The intensive pronouns (such as myself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves) consist of a personal pronoun plus self or selves and emphasize a noun. (I myself don't know the answer.) It is possible (but rather unusual) for an intensive pronoun to precede the noun it refers to. (Myself, I don't believe a word he says.)
Reflexive Pronouns
The reflexive pronouns (which have the same forms as the intensive pronouns) indicate that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb. (Students who cheat on this quiz are only hurting themselves. You paid yourself a million dollars? She encouraged herself to do well.) What this means is that whenever there is a reflexive pronoun in a sentence there must be a person to whom that pronoun can "reflect." In other words, the sentence "Please hand that book to myself" would be incorrect because there is no "I" in that sentence for the "myself" to reflect to (and we would use "me" instead of "myself"). A sentence such as "I gave that book to myself for Christmas" might be silly, but it would be correct.
Be alert to a tendency to use reflexive pronoun forms (ending in -self) where they are neither appropriate nor necessary. The inappropriate reflexive form has a wonderful name: the untriggered reflexive. "Myself" tends to sound weightier, more formal, than little ol' me or I, so it has a way of sneaking into sentences where it doesn't belong.
• Bob and myself I are responsible for this decision.
• These decisions will be made by myself me.
• If you have any questions, please contact myself me or Bob Jones.
When pronouns are combined, the reflexive will take either the first person
• Juanita, Carlos, and I have deceived ourselves into believing in my uncle.
or, when there is no first person, the second person:
• You and Carlos have deceived yourselves.
The indefinite pronoun (see above) one has its own reflexive form ("One must have faith in oneself."), but the other indefinite pronouns use either himself or themselves as reflexives. (There is an entire page on the pronoun one.) It is probably better to pluralize and avoid the clumsy himself or herself construction.
• No one here can blame himself or herself.
• The people here cannot blame themselves.
Interrogative Pronouns
The interrogative pronouns (who/which/what) introduce questions. (What is that? Who will help me? Which do you prefer?) Which is generally used with more specific reference than what. If we're taking a quiz and I ask "Which questions give you the most trouble?", I am referring to specific questions on that quiz. If I ask "What questions give you most trouble"? I could be asking what kind of questions on that quiz (or what kind of question, generically, in general) gives you trouble. The interrogative pronouns also act as Determiners: It doesn't matter which beer you buy. He doesn't know whose car he hit. In this determiner role, they are sometimes called interrogative adjectives.
Like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns introduce noun clauses, and like the relative pronouns, the interrogative pronouns play a subject role in the clauses they introduce:
• We know who is guilty of this crime.
• I already told the detective what I know about it.
Reciprocal Pronouns
The reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another. They are convenient forms for combining ideas. If Bob gave Alicia a book for Christmas and Alicia gave Bob a book for Christmas, we can say that they gave each other books (or that they gave books to each other).
• My mother and I give each other a hard time.
If more than two people are involved (let's say a whole book club), we would say that they gave one another books. This rule (if it is one) should be applied circumspectly. It's quite possible for the exchange of books within this book club, for example, to be between individuals, making "each other" just as appropriate as "one another."
Reciprocal pronouns can also take possessive forms:
• They borrowed each other's ideas.
• The scientists in this lab often use one another's equipment.

security jaringan

Keamanan
Jaringan Komputer

Tujuan Keamanan Jaringan Komputer
• Availability / Ketersediaan
• Reliability / Kehandalan
• Confidentiality / Kerahasiaan

Cara Pengamanan Jaringan Komputer :
– Autentikasi
– Enkripsi

Autentikasi
• Proses pengenalan peralatan, sistem
operasi, kegiatan, aplikasi dan identitas
user yang terhubung dengan jaringan
komputer
• Autentikasi dimulai pada saat user login ke
jaringan dengan cara memasukkan
password

Tahapan Autentikasi
1. Autentikasi untuk mengetahui lokasi dari
peralatan pada suatu simpul jaringan (data link
layer dan network layer)
2. Autentikasi untuk mengenal sistem operasi yang
terhubung ke jaringan (transport layer)
3. Autentikasi untuk mengetahui fungsi/proses
yang sedang terjadi di suatu simpul jaringan
(session dan presentation layer)
4. Autentikasi untuk mengenali user dan aplikasi
yang digunakan (application layer)

Resiko yang Muncul Pada
Tahapan Autentikasi

Enkripsi
• Teknik pengkodean data yang berguna
untuk menjaga data / file baik di dalam
komputer maupun pada jalur komunikasi
dari pemakai yang tidak dikehendaki
• Enkripsi diperlukan untuk menjaga
kerahasiaan data


Teknik Enkripsi
• DES (Data Encription Standard)
• RSA (Rivest Shamir Adelman)

Resiko Jaringan Komputer
Segala bentuk ancaman baik fisik
maupun logik yang langsung atau
tidak langsung mengganggu kegiatan
yang sedang berlangsung dalam
jaringan

Faktor- Faktor Penyebab Resiko
Dalam Jaringan Komputer

- Kelemahan manusia (human error)
- Kelemahan perangkat keras komputer
- Kelemahan sistem operasi jaringan
- Kelemahan sistem jaringan komunikasi

Ancaman Jaringan komputer
• FISIK
- Pencurian perangkat keras komputer atau
perangkat jaringan
- Kerusakan pada komputer dan perangkat
komunikasi jaringan
- Wiretapping
- Bencana alam
• LOGIK
- Kerusakan pada sistem operasi atau aplikasi
- Virus
- Sniffing

Beberapa Bentuk Ancaman Jaringan
• Sniffer
Peralatan yang dapat memonitor proses yang sedang
berlangsung
• Spoofing
Penggunaan komputer untuk meniru (dengan cara
menimpa identitas atau alamat IP.
• Remote Attack
Segala bentuk serangan terhadap suatu mesin dimana
penyerangnya tidak memiliki kendali terhadap mesin
tersebut karena dilakukan dari jarak jaruh di luar sistem
jaringan atau media transmisi
• Hole
Kondisi dari software atau hardware yang bisa diakses
oleh pemakai yang tidak memiliki otoritas atau
meningkatnya tingkat pengaksesan tanpa melalui proses
otorisasi

Beberapa Bentuk Ancaman Jaringan
• Phreaking
Perilaku menjadikan sistem pengamanan telepon
melemah
• Hacker
– Orang yang secara diam-diam mempelajari sistem
yang biasanya sukar dimengerti untuk kemudian
mengelolanya dan men-share hasil ujicoba yang
dilakukannya.
– Hacker tidak merusak sistem
• Craker
– Orang yang secara diam-diam mempelajari sistem
dengan maksud jahat
– Muncul karena sifat dasar manusia yang selalu ingin
membangun (salah satunya merusak)

Beberapa Bentuk Ancaman Jaringan
• Cracker
– Ciri-ciri cracker :
• Bisa membuat program C, C++ atau pearl
• Memiliki pengetahuan TCP/IP
• Menggunakan internet lebih dari 50 jam perbulan
• Menguasai sistem operasi UNIX atau VMS
• Suka mengoleksi software atau hardware lama
• Terhubung ke internet untuk menjalankan
aksinya
• Melakukan aksinya pada malam hari, dengan
alasan waktu yang memungkinkan, jalur
komunikasi tidak padat, tidak mudah diketahui
orang lain

Beberapa Bentuk Ancaman Jaringan
Craker
– Penyebab cracker melakukan penyerangan :
• spite, kecewa, balas dendam
• sport, petualangan
• profit, mencari keuntungan dari imbalan
orang lain
• stupidity, mencari perhatian
• cruriosity, mencari perhatian
• politics, alasan politis

Beberapa Bentuk Ancaman Jaringan
Cracker
– Ciri-ciri target yang dibobol cracker :
• Sulit ditentukan
• Biasanya organisasi besar dan financial dengan sistem
pengamanan yang canggih
• Bila yang dibobol jaringan kecil biasanya sistem
pengamanannya lemah, dan pemiliknya baru dalam
bidang internet
– Ciri-ciri target yang “berhasil” dibobol cracker :
• Pengguna bisa mengakses, bisa masuk ke jaringan tanpa
“nama” dan “password”
• Pengganggu bisa mengakses, merusak, mengubah atau
sejenisnya terhadap data
• Pengganggu bisa mengambil alih kendali sistem
• Sistem hang, gagal bekerja, reboot atau sistem berada
dalam kondisi tidak dapat dioperasikan

Manajemen Resiko
• Pengumpulan Informasi
• Analisis
• Output

Pengumpulan Informasi
• Identifikasi Assets
– Perangakat Keras
– Perangkat Lunak (Sistem Operasi dan
Aplikasi)
– Perangkat Jaringan dan Komunikasi
Data
– Pengguna Jaringan
– Lingkungan
– Sarana Pendukung lainnya

Pengumpulan Informasi
• Penilaian terhadap segala bentuk Ancaman
(threat)


Pengumpulan Informasi
• Penilaian terhadap bagian yang berpotensi
terkena gangguan (vulnerability)
• Penilaian terhadap perlindungan yang
effektif (safeguard)
– keamanan fasilitas fisik jaringan
– keamanan perangkat lunak
– keamanan pengguna jaringan
– keamanan komunikasi data
– keamanan lingkungan jaringan

Analisis & Output
Analisis



Output
Menjalankan safeguard / risk analysis tools

Firewall
Mengatur dan Mengontrol Lalu lintas jaringan
Fungsi pertama yang dapat dilakukan oleh firewall adalah firewall harus dapat mengatur dan mengontrol lalu lintas jaringan yang diizinkan untuk mengakses jaringan privat atau komputer yang dilindungi oleh firewall. Firewall melakukan hal yang demikian, dengan melakukan inspeksi terhadap paket-paket dan memantau koneksi yang sedang dibuat, lalu melakukan penapisan (filtering) terhadap koneksi berdasarkan hasil inspeksi paket dan koneksi tersebut.
Proses inspeksi Paket
Inspeksi paket ('packet inspection) merupakan proses yang dilakukan oleh firewall untuk 'menghadang' dan memproses data dalam sebuah paket untuk menentukan bahwa paket tersebut diizinkan atau ditolak, berdasarkan kebijakan akses (access policy) yang diterapkan oleh seorang administrator. Firewall, sebelum menentukan keputusan apakah Ahendak menolak atau menerima komunikasi dari luar, ia harus melakukan inspeksi terhadap setiap paket (baik yang masuk ataupun yang keluar) di setiap antarmuka dan membandingkannya dengan daftar kebijakan akses. Inspeksi paket dapat dilakukan dengan melihat elemen-elemen berikut, ketika menentukan apakah hendak menolak atau menerima komunikasi:
. Alamat IP dari komputer sumber
. Port sumber pada komputer sumber
. Alamat IP dari komputer tujuan
. Port tujuan data pada komputer tujuan
. Protokol IP
0. Informasi header-header yang disimpan dalam paket
Firewall dapat memantau informasi keadaan koneksi untuk menentukan apakah ia hendak mengizinkan lalu lintas jaringan. Umumnya hal ini dilakukan dengan memelihara sebuah tabel keadaan koneksi (dalam istilah firewall: state table) yang memantau keadaan semua komunikasi yang melewati firewall. Dengan memantau keadaan koneksi ini, firewall dapat menentukan apakah data yang melewati firewall sedang "ditunggu" oleh host yang dituju, dan jika ya, aka mengizinkannya. Jika data yang melewati firewall tidak cocok dengan keadaan koneksi yang didefinisikan oleh tabel keadaan koneksi, maka data tersebut akan ditolak. Hal ini umumnya disebut sebagai Stateful Inspection.

Stateful Packet Inspection
Ketika sebuah firewall menggabungkan stateful inspection dengan packet inspection, maka firewall tersebut dinamakan dengan Stateful Packet Inspection (SPI). SPI merupakan proses inspeksi paket yang tidak dilakukan dengan menggunakan struktur paket dan data yang terkandung dalam paket, tapi juga pada keadaan apa host-host yang saling berkomunikasi tersebut berada. SPI mengizinkan firewall untuk melakukan penapisan tidak hanya berdasarkan isi paket tersebut, tapi juga berdasarkan koneksi atau keadaan koneksi, sehingga dapat mengakibatkan firewall memiliki kemampuan yang lebih fleksibel, mudah diatur, dan memiliki skalabilitas dalam hal penapisan yang tinggi.
Salah satu keunggulan dari SPI dibandingkan dengan inspeksi paket biasa adalah bahwa ketika sebuah koneksi telah dikenali dan diizinkan (tentu saja setelah dilakukan inspeksi), umumnya sebuah kebijakan (policy) tidak dibutuhkan untuk mengizinkan komunikasi balasan karena firewall tahu respons apa yang diharapkan akan diterima. Hal ini memungkinkan inspeksi terhadap data dan perintah yang terkandung dalam sebuah paket data untuk menentukan apakah sebuah koneksi diizinkan atau tidak, lalu firewall akan secara otomatis memantau keadaan percakapan dan secara dinamis mengizinkan lalu lintas yang sesuai dengan keadaan. Ini merupakan peningkatan yang cukup signifikan jika dibandingkan dengan firewall dengan inspeksi paket biasa. Apalagi, proses ini diselesaikan tanpa adanya kebutuhan untuk mendefinisikan sebuah kebijakan untuk mengizinkan respons dan komunikasi selanjutnya. Kebanyakan firewall modern telah mendukung fungsi ini.

Melakukan autentikasi terhadap akses
Fungsi fundamental firewall yang kedua adalah firewall dapat melakukan autentikasi terhadap akses. Protokol TCP/IP dibangun dengan premis bahwa protokol tersebut mendukung komunikasi yang terbuka. Jika dua host saling mengetahui alamat IP satu sama lainnya, maka mereka diizinkan untuk saling berkomunikasi. Pada awal-awal perkembangan Internet, hal ini boleh dianggap sebagai suatu berkah. Tapi saat ini, di saat semakin banyak yang terhubung ke Internet, mungkin kita tidak mau siapa saja yang dapat berkomunikasi dengan sistem yang kita miliki. Karenanya, firewall dilengkapi dengan fungsi autentikasi dengan menggunakan beberapa mekanisme autentikasi, sebagai berikut:
0. Firewall dapat meminta input dari pengguna mengenai nama pengguna (user name) serta kata kunci (password). Metode ini sering disebut sebagai extended authentication atau xauth. Menggunakan xauth pengguna yang mencoba untuk membuat sebuah koneksi akan diminta input mengenai nama dan kata kuncinya sebelum akhirnya diizinkan oleh firewall. Umumnya, setelah koneksi diizinkan oleh kebijakan keamanan dalam firewall, firewall pun tidak perlu lagi mengisikan input password dan namanya, kecuali jika koneksi terputus dan pengguna mencoba menghubungkan dirinya kembali.
0. Metode kedua adalah dengan menggunakan sertifikat digital dan kunci publik. Keunggulan metode ini dibandingkan dengan metode pertama adalah proses autentikasi dapat terjadi tanpa intervensi pengguna. Selain itu, metode ini lebih cepat dalam rangka melakukan proses autentikasi. Meskipun demikian, metode ini lebih rumit implementasinya karena membutuhkan banyak komponen seperti halnya implementasi infrastruktur kunci publik.
0. Metode selanjutnya adalah dengan menggunakan Pre-Shared Key (PSK) atau kunci yang telah diberitahu kepada pengguna. Jika dibandingkan dengan sertifikat digital, PSK lebih mudah diimplenentasikan karena lebih sederhana, tetapi PSK juga mengizinkan proses autentikasi terjadi tanpa intervensi pengguna. Dengan menggunakan PSK, setiap host akan diberikan sebuah kunci yang telah ditentukan sebelumnya yang kemudian digunakan untuk proses autentikasi. Kelemahan metode ini adalah kunci PSK jarang sekali diperbarui dan banyak organisasi sering sekali menggunakan kunci yang sama untuk melakukan koneksi terhadap host-host yang berada pada jarak jauh, sehingga hal ini sama saja meruntuhkan proses autentikasi. Agar tercapai sebuah derajat keamanan yang tinggi, umumnya beberapa organisasi juga menggunakan gabungan antara metode PSK dengan xauth atau PSK dengan sertifikat digital.
Dengan mengimplementasikan proses autentikasi, firewall dapat menjamin bahwa koneksi dapat diizinkan atau tidak. Meskipun jika paket telah diizinkan dengan menggunakan inspeksi paket (PI) atau berdasarkan keadaan koneksi (SPI), jika host tersebut tidak lolos proses autentikasi, paket tersebut akan dibuang.

Melindungi sumber daya dalam jaringan privat
Salah satu tugas firewall adalah melindungi sumber daya dari ancaman yang mungkin datang. Proteksi ini dapat diperoleh dengan menggunakan beberapa peraturan pengaturan akses (access control), penggunaan SPI, application proxy, atau kombinasi dari semuanya untuk mencegah host yang dilindungi dapat diakses oleh host-host yang mencurigakan atau dari lalu lintas jaringan yang mencurigakan. Meskipun demikian, firewall bukanlah satu-satunya metode proteksi terhadap sumber daya, dan mempercayakan proteksi terhadap sumber daya dari ancaman terhadap firewall secara eksklusif adalah salah satu kesalahan fatal.
Jika sebuah host yang menjalankan sistem operasi tertentu yang memiliki lubang keamanan yang belum ditambal dikoneksikan ke Internet, firewall mungkin tidak dapat mencegah dieksploitasinya host tersebut oleh host-host lainnya, khususnya jika exploit tersebut menggunakan lalu lintas yang oleh firewall telah diizinkan (dalam konfigurasinya). Sebagai contoh, jika sebuah packet-inspection firewall mengizinkan lalu lintas HTTP ke sebuah web server yang menjalankan sebuah layanan web yang memiliki lubang keamanan yang belum ditambal, maka seorang pengguna yang "iseng" dapat saja membuat exploit untuk meruntuhkan web server tersebut karena memang web server yang bersangkutan memiliki lubang keamanan yang belum ditambal. Dalam contoh ini, web server tersebut akhirnya mengakibatkan proteksi yang ditawarkan oleh firewall menjadi tidak berguna. Hal ini disebabkan oleh firewall yang tidak dapat membedakan antara request HTTP yang mencurigakan atau tidak. Apalagi, jika firewall yang digunakan bukan application proxy. Oleh karena itulah, sumber daya yang dilindungi haruslah dipelihara dengan melakukan penambalan terhadap lubang-lubang keamanan, selain tentunya dilindungi oleh firewall.

catatan bahasa inggris

Simple Future Tense
I will sing
The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the simple future tense with the modal auxiliary will.
How do we make the Simple Future Tense?
The structure of the simple future tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + main verb
invariable base
will V1
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the simple future tense:
subject auxiliary verb main verb
+ I will open the door.
+ You will finish before me.
- She will not be at school tomorrow.
- We will not leave yet.
? Will you arrive on time?
? Will they want dinner?
When we use the simple future tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:
I will I'll
you will you'll
he willshe willit will he'llshe'llit'll
we will we'll
they will they'll
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't, like this:
I will not I won't
you will not you won't
he will notshe will notit will not he won'tshe won'tit won't
we will not we won't
they will not they won't
How do we use the Simple Future Tense?
No Plan
We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:
· Hold on. I'll get a pen.
· We will see what we can do to help you.
· Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of speaking.
We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:
· I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.
· I think I will have a holiday next year.
· I don't think I'll buy that car.
Prediction
We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:
· It will rain tomorrow.
· People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
· Who do you think will get the job?
Be
When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a firm plan or decision before speaking. Examples:
· I'll be in London tomorrow.
· I'm going shopping. I won't be very long.
· Will you be at work tomorrow?

Note that when we have a plan or intention to do something in the future, we usually use other tenses or expressions, such as the present continuous tense or going to.

Future Continuous Tense
I will be singing
How do we make the Future Continuous Tense?
The structure of the future continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + auxiliary verb BE + main verb
invariable invariable present participle
will be base + ing
For negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we insert not between will and be. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future continuous tense:
subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb
+ I will be working at 10am.
+ You will be lying on a beach tomorrow.
- She will not be using the car.
- We will not be having dinner at home.
? Will you be playing football?
? Will they be watching TV?
When we use the future continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and will:
I will I'll
you will you'll
he willshe willit will he'llshe'llit'll
we will we'll
they will they'll
For spoken negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we contract with won't, like this:
I will not I won't
you will not you won't
he will notshe will notit will not he won'tshe won'tit won't
we will not we won't
they will not they won't


We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.

How do we use the Future Continuous Tense?
The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm:
At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working.
past present future
4pm

At 4pm, I will be in the middle of working.
When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples:
· I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow.
· They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight.
· What will you be doing at 10pm tonight?
· What will you be doing when I arrive?
· She will not be sleeping when you telephone her.
· We 'll be having dinner when the film starts.
· Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.
Future Perfect Tense
I will have sung
The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The future perfect tense talks about the past in the future.
How do we make the Future Perfect Tense?
The structure of the future perfect tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + auxiliary verb HAVE + main verb
invariable invariable past participle
will have V3
Look at these example sentences in the future perfect tense:
subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb
+ I will have finished by 10am.
+ You will have forgotten me by then.
- She will not have gone to school.
- We will not have left.
? Will you have arrived?
? Will they have received it?
In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject and will. Sometimes, we contract the subject, will and have all together:
I will have I'll have I'll've
you will have you'll have you'll've
he will haveshe will haveit will have he'll haveshe'll haveit'll have he'll'veshe'll'veit'll've
we will have we'll have we'll've
they will have they'll have they'll've


We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for I and we.

How do we use the Future Perfect Tense?
The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the future. This is the past in the future. For example:
· The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left.
The train will have left when you arrive.
past present future
Train leaves in future at 9am.
9 9.15


You arrive in future at 9.15am.
Look at some more examples:
· You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8.
· They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long time.
· "Mary won't be at home when you arrive."
"Really? Where will she have gone?"
You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of your viewpoint being in the present, it is in the future:
present perfect tense future perfect tense
|have |done |> | will |have |done |> |

past now future past now future
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
I will have been singing
How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?
The structure of the future perfect continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + auxiliary verb HAVE + auxiliary verb BE + main verb
invariable invariable past participle present participle
will have been base + ing
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we insert not between will and have. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future perfect continuous tense:
subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb
+ I will have been working for four hours.
+ You will have been travelling for two days.
- She will not have been using the car.
- We will not have been waiting long.
? Will you have been playing football?
? Will they have been watching TV?
When we use the future perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:
I will I'll
you will you'll
he willshe willit will he'llshe'llit'll
we will we'll
they will they'll
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we contract with won't, like this:
I will not I won't
you will not you won't
he will notshe will notit will not he won'tshe won'tit won't
we will not we won't
they will not they won't
How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?
We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some point in the future. Look at these examples:

catatan

PERANCANGAN SISTEM ROBOT

Penting bagi kita untuk mulai dari yang kecil terlebih dahulu.Tetapi bila ini adalah robot pertama kita, disarankan untuk mulai dari platform yang kecil yang mempunyai banyak ruang untuk rangkaia elektronikanya untuk mengetahui teknologi – teknologi berbeda yang akan dibutuhkan.

Ketika mendefinisikan robot, bersiaplah dengan kemungkinan terburuk. Artinya kita harus menyadari bahwa bagian - bagian yang berbeda mungkin akan tidak bekerja. Jangan terlalu berharap kita akan berhasil dengan cara pertama yang kita rancang. Selalu ada lebih dari satu cara untuk melakukan sesuatu. Metoda apa yang terbaik bagi aplikasi yang kita buat?

Sangat menguntungkan jika kita menemukan cara yang lebih baik yang kemudian mencatatnya dalam notebook daripada menyusun ulang aplikasinya. Disusun ulang aplikasinya hanya jika perubahannya akan menyebabkan kemajuan besar dari apa yang sudah ada. Aturan dasarnya adalah “bila tidak rusak maka jangan diperbaiki”

Hal paling penting yang harus kita lakukan sebelum mulai merancang dan membuat robot adalah membuat sekumpulan kebutuhan/persyaratan (requirement) robot. Syarat – syarat tersebut akan membantu kita untuk menentukan langkah-langkah yang dibutuhkan untuk mencapai tujuan akhir dan pegangan kita apakah visi robot yang dibuat sudah tercapai atau belum. Harus teliti dan ketat dalam menyusun syarat – syarat robot tersebut, hal tersebut dapat memantau apa yang kita kerjakan dan tidak membuat kita kewalahan dengan pekerjaan di depan kita.

SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)

Istilah Telekomunikasi SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
SIP adalah peer-to-peer signaling protokol, dikembangkan oleh Internet Engineering Task force (IETF), yang mengijinkan endpoint-nya untuk memulai dan mengakhiri sessions komunikasi. Di dalam IP dan telephone tradisional, selalu dibedakan dengan jelas dua tahap panggilan voice. Tahap pertama adalah Call Setup yang mencakup semua detail keperluan agar dua perangkat telephone dapat berkomunikasi. Tahap selanjutnya adalah transfer data dimana call setup sudah terbentuk. Di dalam VoIP, SIP adalah protocol call setup yang beroperasi pada layer aplikasi. Protokol lain dengan fungsi yang sama adalah H.323 yang dikeluarkan oleh ITU. SIP sangat fleksibel dan didesain secara general untuk setup real-time multimedia sessions antara group participants. Sebagai contoh, selain untuk call telephone yang sederhana, SIP dapat juga digunakan untuk set-up conference video dan audio atau instant messaging.
Arsitektur dari SIP terdiri dari dua komponen yaitu user agent dan servers. User agent merupakan end point dari sistem dan memuat dua sub sistem yaitu user agent client (UAC) yang membangkitkan request, dan user agent server (UAS) yang merespon request. SIP server adalah kesatuan fungsi logic, dimana tidak perlu memisahkan alat secara fisik. Fungsi dari empat server tersebut yaitu:
1. Proxy Server : merupakan host jaringan yang berperan sebagai perantara yang bertujuan untuk meminta request atas nama client yang lain. Proxy harus bertindak sebagai server dan client, dia harus mengarahkan SIP request pada user agent server, dan mengarahkan SIP respons pada user agent client . Proxy server juga berfungsi untuk melakukan routing, memastikan request disampaikan pada yang berhak menerima, dan juga membuat kebijakan seperti menyakinkan bahwa pemakai tertentu diijinkan untuk melakukan panggilan.
2. Redirect Server: merupakan kesatuan logika yang mengarahkan satu klien pada perangkat pengganti dari Uniform Resorce indicators (URIs) untuk menyelesaikan tugas request.
3. Registrar Server : menerima dan memproses pesan pendaftaran yang mengijinkan lokasi dari suatu endpoint dapat diketahui keberadaannya. Registrar Server ini kerjanya berhubungan dengan Location Server.
4. Location Server : menyediakan service untuk database abstrak yang berfungsi mentranslasikan alamat dengan kata / keterangan yang ada pada domain jaringan.
Messages yang terdapat pada SIP didefinisikan dalam dua format :
1. Request, dikirim dari client ke server , yang berisi tentang operasi yang diminta oleh client tersebut.
2. Responses , dikirim dari server ke client, yang berisi informasi mengenai status dari apa yang diminta oleh client.


Enam tipe dari request messages, diantaranya:
1. INVITE : menunjukkan bahwa user atau service sedang diundang untuk bergabung dalam session. Isi dari pesan ini akan memasukkan suatu uraian menyangkut session untuk user yang akan diundang.
2. ACK : mengkonfirmasi bahwa client telah menerima suatu final response untuk suatu INVITE request , dan hanya digunakan di INVITE request.
3. OPTION : digunakan untuk query suatu server tentang kemampuan yang dimilikinya.
4. BYE : dikirim oleh user agent client untuk menunjukkan pada server bahwa percakapan ingin segera diakhiri.
5. CANCEL : digunakan untuk membatalkan suatu request yang sedang menunggu keputusan.
6. REGISTER : digunakan oleh client untuk mendaftarkan informasi kontak. Response messages berisi status kode dan keterangan tentang kondisi dari request tersebut.
Nilai-nilai dari kode satatus yang serupa dengan penggunaan pada HTTP, dibagi dalam enam kategori:
1. 1xx: Provisional, request telah diterima dan sedang melanjutkan proses.
2. 2xx: Success, tindakan dengan sukses diterima, dipahami, dan disetujui.
3. 3xx: Redirection, tindakan lebih lanjut diperlukan untuk memproses permintaan ini.
4. 4xx: Client Error, permintaan berisi sintak yang salah dan tidak bisa dikenali oleh server sehingga server tidak dapat memprosesnya.
5. 5xx: Server Error, server gagal untuk memproses suatu permintaan yang sah.
6. 6xx: Global Failure, permintaan tidak dapat dipenuhi oleh server manapun. SIP menggabungkan beberapa macam protokol baik itu dari standar yang dikeluarkan oleh IETF sendiri maupun oleh ITU-T.
Protokol SIP didukung oleh beberapa protokol, diantara lain:
• IETF Session Description Protokol (SDP), merupakan protokol yang mendeskripsikan media dalam suatu komunikasi. Tujuan protokol SDP adalah untuk memberikan informasi aliran media dalam satu sesi komunikasi agar penerima yang menerima informasi tersebut dapat berkomunikasi.
• IETF Session Annoucement Protocol (SAP), merupakan suatu protocol yang setiap periode waktu tertentu mengumumkan parameter dari suatu sesi konferensi.
• IETF Real-Time transport protocol (RTP), menyediakan transfer media secara real time.
• Real-Time Control Protokol (RTCP), mengatur sesi secara periodik mentrasmit paket yang berisi feedback atas kualitas dari distribusi data.
• ITU_T Codec merupakan algoritma pengkodean yang direkomendasikan, seperti G.723.1, G711, G.728, dan G.729 untuk audio, atau H.261 untuk video.

language english

SIMPLE PRESENT AND PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
EXERCISE :
1. Something smells (smell) very good.
2. We are eating (eat) dinner at 7 O’clock tonight.
3. He is practices (practice) the piano evey day.
4. They are driving (drive) to school tomorrow.
5. I believe ( believe) you.
6. Maria has (have) a cold.
7. Jorge is swimming (swim) right now.
8. John hotes (hate) smoke.
9. I’ll always gets (get) up at 6.00 am.
10. Jerry is mowing (mow) the lawn now.


PERSENT PERFECT AND SIMPLE PAST
EXERCISE:
1. John wrote (write) his report last night.
2. Bob has seen (see) this movie before.
3. Jorge has read (read) the newspaper already.
4. Mr. Johnson has work (work) in the some place for thirsty.Five years and he isn’t planning to retire yet.
5. We haven’t began (begin/negative) to study for the test yet.
6. Goerge went (go) the store at ten O’clock this morning.
7. Joan has travel (travel) around the world.
8. Betty wrote (write) a letter last night.
9. Guilarmo called (call) his employer yesterday.
10. We haven’t (see/ negative) this movie yet.


SIMPLE PAST TENSE AND PAST PROGERSSIVE

EXERCISE :
1. Gene was eating (eat) dinner when his friend called.
2. While maria was cleaning the apartment,her husband was sleep (sleep).
3. At there o’clock this morning,Elanor was studying (study).
4. When mark arrived,the johnson’s were having (have) dinner, but they stooped in order to talk to him.
5. John went (go) to france last year.
6. When the teacher entered (enter) the room,the student were talking.
7. While joan was writing the report,henry was looking (look) for more information.
8. We saw (see) this movie last nigt.
9. At one time,Mr Roberts owened (own) this building.
10. Jose was writing (write) a letter to his family when his pencil brooke (break).

CATATAN:
1. SIMPLE PAST :
· Kejadian lampau tetapi sudah selesai.

2. PAST PROGRESSIVE
· Kejadian lampau yang sudah berhenti tetapi ada kejadian yang sedang berlangsung tiba-tiba.
· Cirri selanjutnya yaitu waktu kejadian tidak abstrak misalkan at seven o’clock.
· Kata sambung while adalah salah satu cirinya.


3. SIMPLE PRESENT
· Kejadian rutin sehari-hari.

4. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
· Terdapat durasi waktu nya.
· Menggunakan V+ing.

Diposkan oleh blog GeG di 20:21 0 komentar



OTHER
1.OTHER WITH COUNT NOUNS
An + other + singular noun (one more)
Ø Another pencil → one more pencil
The + other + singular non ( last of the set)
Ø The other pencil → the last pencil present other + pliral noun ( more of the set)
Ø Other pencils → some more pencils the other + plural noun (the rest of the set)
Ø The other pencils → all remaining pencils
2.OTHER WITH NOUN - COUNT NOUNS
Ø Other + noun count nouns (more ot the set)
Ø Other water → some more water
The other + noun – count noun (all the rest)
Ø The other water → the remaining water.

EXERCISE:
1. This pen isn’t working.Please give me another.
2. If you are still thirsty,I’ll make the other pot of coffee.
3. The dictionary has a page missing.Please give me the other one.
4. The glass of milk is sour.Another glass of milk is sour too.
5. He doesn’t need those book’s.He need the others.
Catatan :
Another and other are non specific while the other is specific. If the subject is understood,one can unit the noun and keep the determiner and other.So that other functions as a pronoun.If it si a plural count noun that is omitted,other becames others.teh word other can never be plural if it is followed by a noun.

Diposkan oleh blog GeG di 20:14 0 komentar




Determiner

Determiners adalah kata yang diletakkan di depan nomina (nouns) yang berfungsi sebagai penanda (noun markers) yang memperjelas makna nomina tersebut. Misalnya kata “people” yang berarti orang, jika ditambah “these” di depannya menjadi “these people”, maka kita menjadi lebih tahu “people” yang mana yang dimaksud. Dan jika dikatakan “a lot of people”, maka kita tahu bahwa yang dimaksud adalah “people” yang jumlahnya banyak. 

Yang termasuk dalam kategori determiners adalah sebagai berikut: 
- Articles (the, a, an) 
- Demonstratives (this, that, these, those) 
- Possessives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) 
- Quantifiers (a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough, etc.) 
- Numbers (one, ten, thirty, etc.) 
- Distributives (all, both, half, either, neither, each, every) 
- Difference words (other, another) 
- Question words (which, what, whose) 
- Defining words (which, whose

Contoh Determiners:
1. He doesn’t have (many/much) money.
2. (A few/little) people left early.
3. I do not want (these/this) water.
4. This is (too many/too much) information.
5. Would tou like (less/fewer) coffee than this?
6. She bought (than/those) cards last night.
7. I would like (a few/a little) salt on my vetegatables.
8. There are (less/fewer) studens in this room that in the next room.
9. There is (too much/ too many) bad news on television tonight.
10.This jacket costs (too much/too many).

Ket : jawaban yang di beri garis bawah


Diposkan oleh blog GeG di 20:06 0 komentar



Articles
1.PENGANTAR
• Hanya ada 3 article dalam Bahasa Inggris : a, an dan the.
• Ada 2 tipe Article dalam Bahasa Inggris, yaitu indefinite a dan an atau definite the.
• JANGAN gunakan article sama sekali untuk membicarakan sesuatu yang masih bersifat umum.
Contoh:
•"Books are expensive." = (Artinya semua buku itu mahal.)
•"The books are expensive." = (Artinya hanya buku yang sedang dibicarakan itulah yang mahal, yang lainnya belum tentu.)

2.INDEFINITE ARTICLE - A - AN (DETERMINER)
"A" dan "AN" termasuk indefinite articles. Keduanya mengacu pada sesuatu yang tidak spesifik terhadap orang yang diajak berbicara. "A"dan "AN" diletakkan sebelum kata benda yang belum pernah Anda sebutkan sebelumnya kepada lawan bicara Anda.
•"I saw an elephant this morning."
•"I ate a banana for lunch
"A" dan "AN" juga digunakan ketika kita berbicara tentang pekerjaan kita.
•"I am an English teacher."
•"I am a builder."




Catatan :
Kita menggunakan a ketika di belakangnya adalah kata benda yang dimulai dengan suara konsonan (BUKAN huruf konsonan). Dan kita menggunakan an ketika kata benda yang berada di belakangnya dimulai dengan bunyi vokal.
• Pada kata "university" kata tersebut dimulai dengan suara "y" dan sepertinya kita mengucapkan "youniversity". Maka article yang dipakai adalah, "a university" BUKAN "an university"
Kemudian pada kata "hour" kita menyebutnya seperti kita mengucapkan "our". Maka, Article yang dipakai adalah "an hour" BUKAN "a hour".

3. DEFINITE ARTICLE - THE (DETERMINER)
Kita memakai " the" ketika kita tahu betul kalau benda yang sedang kita bicarakan sudah dimengerti maksudnya oleh pendengar kita.
•"The apple you ate was rotten."
•"Did you lock the car?"
Kita juga harus menggunakan " the" di depan kata benda yang sudah kita bicarakan sebelumnya. Perhatikan contoh berikut ini.
•"She's got two children; a girl and a boy. The girl's eight and the boy's fourteen."
Gunakan "the" untuk membicakan titik tertentu pada lokasi geografi.
•the North Pole, the equator
Gunakan "the" untuk di depan nama sungai, Samudra dan laut.
•the Nile, the Pacific, the English channel
Gunakan "the" untuk benda yang cuma ada 1 di dunia ini.
•the sun, the wind, the world, the earth, the White House.
Namun jika kita ingin menggambarkan contoh khusus, maka gunakan "a" atau "an".
•"I could hear the wind." / "There's a cold wind blowing."
•"What are your plans for the future?" / "She has a promising future ahead of her."
Kita juga bisa menggunakan "the" untuk mengatakan tentang orang atau benda tertentu yang sudah terkenal.
•"Harry's Bar is the place to go."
•"You don't mean you met the Tony Blair, do you?"

4. TIDAK ADA ARTICLE
Jangan gunakan article di depan kata benda yang bersifat umum.
•Water flows from higher to lower place. (Semua air mengalir dari atas ke bawah, tidak ada air tertentu yang mengalir dari tempat rendah ke tempat tinggi)
•People are worried about rising crime. (Semua orang khawatir akan tingginya kriminalitas)
Jangan gunakan article untuk menyatakan olah raga .
•My son plays football.
•Tennis is expensive.
Jangan gunakan article sebelum kata benda yang tidak dapat dihitung (uncountable nouns) ketika kita membicarakannya secara umum.
•Information is important to any organisation.
•Coffee is bad for you.
Jangan gunakan article di depan nama negara KECUALI terdiri dari kata-kata seperti (state(s), kindom, republic, union). Kingdom, state, republic dan union adalah kata benda, jadi tidak butuh article.
•Tidak ada article - Italy, Mexico, Bolivia
•Gunakan the - the UK, the USA, the Irish Republic
•Perhatikan! the Netherlands

catatan ke-1

OTHER

With count nouns
an + other + singular noun (one more)
• Another pencil one more pencil
The + other + singular noun (last of the set)
• The other pencil the last pencil present
Other + plural noun (more of the set)
• Other pencil some more pencils
The other + plural noun (the rest of the set)
• The other pencils all remaining pencils

With noun-count nouns
other + noun-count nouns (more of the set)
• other water some more water
• the other water the remaining water
the other + noun-count noun (all the rest)

Exercise
1. This pen isn’t working. Please give me another (singular).
2. If you’re still, I’ll make the other pot if coffee
3. This dictionary has a page missing. Please give me the other one (the last one)
4. The doesn’t need those books, the needs the other ones (all the remaining)
5. There are thirty people in the room. Twenty are from latin amerika and the other are from other countries
6. Six people were in the store, two were buy meat the other was looking at magazines
7. This glass of milk is sour another glass of milk is sour too
8. The army was practicing it’s drill. One group was doing artillery practice other was marching ; another was at attention ; and the other was practicing combat tactis
9. There are seven student from japan other are from I ran and the other are from other places
10. We looked at four cars today the first two were far too expensive but the other ones were reasonable priced